Stress in the workplace.

Research has made a significant contribution to the understanding of stress in particular to the process and stages of stress. Some researchers have proposed that stress is a process (Barling, 1990). This proposition of the three-stage process breaks stress into components namely stress, stressor and strain (Barling, 1990). Still other theories propose a two-stage process consisting of primary and secondary appraisal (Westen, 2002). Stress can be caused by both internal and external factors. However, workplace stress is usually a result of incongruence between the individual’s perceived abilities and the jobs demands or if barriers deny the individual from gratifying strong needs, as such the person environment fit can be deemed inadequate (Keita, & Hurrell, 1994). I will discuss stress and its association with a decline in work performance, organizational efficiency and health. I will also discuss how a lack of motivation within the working environment is a major cause of stress and how this can be overcome by implementing opportunities. Particularly by providing opportunities that allow skill development, and allowing employees to perform a variety of skills. Also, I will discuss how social support acts as buffer against stress and how a stress management program can help reduce stress.

Stress can be defined as any experience that an individual perceives to be a threat to their psychological or physical well-being (Barling, 1990). Workplace stress can be further defined as a reaction to adversive stimuli presented to the individual in the working environment (Muchinsky, 2002). Barling (1990) proposes that stress is a three-stage process (Barling, 1990). The first component is the stressor, which is an objective environmental event. The second component is stress, which is subjective as it is dependent upon the individual’s interpretation of the event or rather the stressor. The third component is strain, which is the outcome of the stress process. Strain is the effect or rather the consequence and as such affects the psychological, behavioural or physical aspects of the individual (Barling, 1990). Furthermore, Barling (1990) has stated that there are different types of stress these are acute, chronic and daily stress. Acute stress is sporadic and as such, reoccurrence is likely to be low. A considerable cause for acute stress is sudden or unexpected events or changes in circumstances. Daily stresses are infrequent; onset is specific and thus daily stress is not considered enduring. Chronic stress is the experience of prolonged stress overtime thus, is enduring. A significant cause for chronic stress is ‘intra and inter role stressors’ (Barling, 1990).

Lazarus (1971, cited in Westen, 2002) proposed two stages in the stress process, namely primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. In primary appraisal, the individual determines if the situation is stressful, irrelevant or benign. In secondary appraisal, the individual assesses all choices before deciding how to respond. In addition, Lazarus (1971, cited in Westen, 2002) identified three kinds of stress. The first stress is harm or loss such as the loss of a job. The second stress is threat, which is the anticipation of loss or harm. The third is challenge, which may provide opportunities for personal development (Weston, 2002). There appears to be no clear definitions of the term stress, however if an individual feels overwhelmed, confused, mentally or physically exhausted one can assume that the individual is experiencing some form of stress or in the least a sense of distress. The events leading to stress or rather the triggers preceding the response can be numerous and will differ for each individual.

The events or rather the stimuli causing stress are referred to as stressors (Barling, 1990). Stressors can be objective, and may have external characteristics. The situational determinants of what is considered a stressor will differ for each individual. What causes stress for one person may be a challenge for another (Barling, 1990).

Stress can be both internal and external (Atkinson, Smith, & Bem, 1993). Internalised stress is caused from within the individual often brought about by an internal conflict such as a personal goal or desire that cannot be obtained. Alternatively, stress can be caused by conflicts of motives or inner needs that are not compatible, particularly when one has learned that it is not appropriate or acceptable to express a feeling or behave in a certain manner. External stress is a result of environmental factors and conflicts. There are many external situational determinants that may cause stress however, an individual will consider three distinctive features before perceiving an event to be stressful. These are controllability, predictability and challenging to ones limits of both capabilities and one’s self concept and as such, individuals will differ in both their appraisal of events as stressful and their responses (Atkinson, Smith, & Bem, 1993). Although there are differences on the exact causes or rather sources of stress, there does appear to be a common consensus that an event will be deemed either stressful or challenging based on the individuals perception particularly to demands, capabilities and the perceived consequences to a demand that cannot be met (Cooper, & Payne, 1980). In other words, the individual’s cognitive appraisal process will evaluate the situation and respond accordingly. This makes sense because if one cannot control a situation, or predict a situations outcome one is most likely to experience some form of distress.

Environmental stressors are numerous, however; Landy and Trumbo (1976, cited in Cooper & Payne, 1980) propose that the most common workplace stressors are long or odd working hours, job insecurity, dangerous working conditions, task demands and extreme competition. McGrath (1976, cited in Cooper & Payne, 1980) proposes six common stressors these are task, role, physical environment, social environment, behaviour setting and an individuals characteristics. Another important cause of stress within the workplace is The Person Environment Fit (Keita, & Hurrell, 1994). This framework offers insights into causes of stress. In particular, that stress can be caused by an incongruence between the individual and the environment. Firstly, the individual has needs and the organisation does not provide for those needs with either adequate resources or rewards. Secondly, there is incongruence between the employees ability or style and the organizations task requirements. The stress is created because firstly, the individual has adequate motivation in achieving desired outcomes and secondly the individual experiences uncertainty in trying to achieve the outcomes. Thirdly, the uncertainty is present over a lengthy period. These three key elements work together in creating stress (Keita, & Hurrell, 1994). In addition, ideally the right person should be placed in the right job in the first place (Quick, Hess, Hermalin, & Quick, 1990). The person environment fit is important for job success as this ensures an accurate match between employee skills and abilities and the organizations needs (Quick, Hess, Hermalin, & Quick, 1990.

Causes that have been identified for specific types of stress namely daily, acute and chronic stress are ambiguous (Barling, 1990). However, acute stress can be caused by a change in employment, termination, workplace accidents and strikes. However, acute stress can lead to chronic stress such as a prolonged strike. Daily stress can be caused by impromptu situations, and ad hoc tasks. Chronic stress can be caused by a lack of control and even travelling to and from work each day. Other causes of chronic stress are ‘role conflict’, ‘role overload’ and ‘role ambiguity’ (Cherniss, 1980). 

Role ambiguity occurs when the individual has ambiguous or insufficient information thus satisfactory knowledge to effectively perform the required tasks (Lee, & Lee, 2001). Role conflict (intra-role) occurs when the employee and other individuals have conflicting expectations (Lee, & Lee, 2001). Thus, the employee must choose, complying with one expectation over the other. This causes a conflict within the individual and within the context of the workplace, this type of stress leads to employee dissatisfaction and organizational turnover (Lee, & Lee, 2001). It can also occur if the individual performs different roles with conflicting demands (inter-role) such as juggling the role of employee and the role of parent (Muchinsky, 2002).
‘Role overload’ often referred to, as ‘work overload’ exists if the individual has too much work that cannot be performed within the allocated working timeframe (quantitative) (Lee, & Lee, 2001). It also exists if the employee believes that they do not possess the necessary skills to perform tasks effectively (qualitative). In addition, employees with excessive performance demands placed upon them for prolonged periods may experience a serious stress effect often referred to as ‘burnout’ (Lee, & Lee, 2001).

‘Burnout’ or rather ‘stress effect’ is characterised by both diminished motivation and drive energy and is often debilitating for the individual (Cherniss, 1980). This in turn affects physical, behavioural and affective states. As such, individuals experiencing ‘burnout’ feel physically taxed, mentally exhausted and emotionally drained. The causes of ‘burnout’ can include repetitive work, continuous ‘role’ or ‘work overload’ or not having enough work. Also, prolonged denial of creative and mental energy namely boredom may cause ‘burnout’. In addition, as an individual invests a great amount of time and effort in their chosen occupation particularly at a professional level the consequences of ‘burnout’ can be serious. Specifically in relation to perceived competence as ones, self-esteem and identity may be closely linked to work performance outcomes (Cherniss, 1980). This makes sense because if one feels incompetent with ones abilities, the task is no longer a challenge but rather a threat. Furthermore, over a prolonged period, motivation would decrease and stress would most likely increase. Especially if one compares their abilities or rather lack of with other employees or if one has no longer a sense of meaning in their work and there is more stress than rewards or support within the working environment (this fits well with equity theory). Moreover, ‘stress effect’ over a prolonged period may lead to health implications at both a psychological and physiological level.

Stress has been associated to individual wellbeing and health (Weston, 2002). In particular, individuals who suffer from stress effects have a higher incidence of headaches, depression, backache, influenza and possibly some forms of cancer. Furthermore, stress can affect both long-term and working memory as it interferes with both the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. Chronic stress may cause the hippocampus to decrease in size and causes permanent cell death. A study by Jemmott et al., (1983, cited in Weston, 2002) found a relationship between immunologic functioning and stress, as the antibody known as immunoglobulin A was found to be lower in participants experiencing stress. Thus, stress may lead to a weaker immune system; as such, individuals are more vulnerable to viral infections, sore throats and to other illness (Weston, 2002). As such, it is important that industry manage or rather try to prevent stress particularly as they bare the cost in sick days and loss of production (Farber, 1983).

Stress management is the methodology designed to alleviate stress within individuals to a healthy level (Farber, 1983). As a large amount of time is spent at work, as such coping strategies alone may not be enough to alleviate stress. Therefore, some form of organizational restructuring or shift in the organizations dynamics may be required for effective employee stress reduction and task efficacy.

Barling (1990) states that moderate stress is performance enhancing as it provides motivational energy. On the other hand, not enough stress reduces motivational energy. Stress caused by a lack of motivation within the work place can be reduced by focusing on extrinsic and intrinsic factors that are significant to employees (Farber, 1983). Extrinsic factors include such things as adequate pay and fringe benefits (Farber, 1983). However, extrinsic factors alone may not meet the intrinsic needs of employees.

Hackman and Oldham (1980, cited in Farber, 1983) propose that intrinsic employee motivation is dependent upon five distinctive features. They claim that employee internal motivation will increase if there are opportunities for task variety and use of employee skills. In addition, the job should have task significance thus; have an effect on others in some way as this provides a sense of meaning to the task. The job should have task identity accordingly, employees complete or at least are involved in the task in some way from start to finish. Also, employees must have adequate feedback in relation to their efforts and should have sufficient autonomy. Furthermore, two other factors are important. These are participation in the decision making process and an opportunity for the development or rather the learning of relevant new skills is also fundamental to employee motivation within the working environment (Farber, 1983). The characteristics highlighted can reduce work place stress levels. By creating employee motivation, namely by providing task variety, task significance and identity, allowing autonomy, offering feedback and acquisition of new skills, may help to alleviate employee tension thus many common sources of stress may be eliminated from the working environment. However, in demanding jobs another key element that may significantly reduce individual tension is social support (Farber, 1983). As buffers, that offer emotional support may help the individual to cope more effectively with stress.

Social support may act as an important buffer against the effects of stress (Farber, 1983). This is because it provides the individual with a means to confide in and discuss problems with others, and receive feedback or guidance. Social support has been broken into six components that perform numerous functions namely, listening this serves the function of being heard without being judged or advised but rather the listener shows a genuine interest. Technical support offers an affirmation to ones competence. The person who provides technical support must be an expert relevant to the field and one that can provide candid feedback. Technical challenge can prevent both boredom and burnout. Emotional support provides the individual with absolute support no matter what the situation. Coworkers, family or friends can provide emotional support. Emotional challenge facilitates emotional growth and can be provided by friends, family or coworkers. By having, another questioning ones reasons or efforts this can provide an opportunity for self-examination particularly in relation to attaining goals or overcoming difficulties. The final component is sharing social reality. This can validate perceptions particularly when one is confused or under stress. Another individual with shared values and beliefs can provide social reality. Thus, social support acts as a buffer against stress however, other strategies may also be useful for individuals experiencing stress (Farber, 1983).

Another approach used successfully in treating the effects of stress is cognitive behaviour therapy (Farber, 1983). CBT uses specific techniques to reduce stress. A ‘coping skills program’ can teach individuals appropriate coping skill strategies to effectively deal with stressful situations (Corey, 2000). Individuals can be taught stress management techniques. The main procedures of this program are imagery and role-playing of stressful situations, teaching individuals to evaluate their anxieties and in stressful situations know their anxiety provoking thoughts. These cognitions are challenged and self-statements are examined. Finally, individuals then reevaluate their anxiety levels. Also, techniques such as relaxation training, meditation and yoga can teach individuals to relax. Other interventions may include time management, training in social skills and reevaluating priorities (Corey, 2000). As a stress management program offers some practical techniques such as relaxation training and time management. These techniques could easily be introduced into the work environment by way of a workshop or group activity, as could social support.

Examining the two theories discussed Barling’s (1990) three-stage process of stress and Lazarus (1971) two-stage process of stress; one can gain insight into the dynamics of stress. This paper has highlighted the different types of stress and how an event is considered stressful or challenging depending on the individual’s interpretation. This paper has discussed workplace stressors and role stressors and in particular, how prolonged stress can lead to the serious stress effect of ‘burnout’. This paper also discussed stress and its effects on work performance and organizational efficiency and how a lack of motivation within the working environment is a major cause of stress. Also, how this can be overcome by implementing opportunities. This paper has also touched upon the buffering effect of social support and some practical applications of cognitive behaviour therapy pertaining to the management of stress.

Reference: Atkinson, RL. & Smith, EE, & Bem, DJ, (1993), Introduction to Psychology, 11th (Ed.), Harcourt Brace & Company, USA Barling, J, (1990), Employment, Stress and Family Functioning, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. England Cherniss, C, (1980), Staff Burnout, Sage Publications, Inc. USA Cooper, CL. & Payne, R, (1980), Stress at Work, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. England Farber, BA, (1983), Stress and Burnout in the Human Service Professions, Pergamon Press, Inc. USA Keita, GP. & Hurrell, JJ, (1994), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce, American Psychological Association, USA Lee, SK. & Lee, W, (2001), Coping with Job Stress in Industries, Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing, Vol.11 (3) 255-268 Muchinsky, P. M. (2003). Psychology Applied to Work, (7th Ed.). Wadsworth, Thomas Learning Inc, USA Quick, JC. & Hess, RE, & Hermalin, J, (1990), Career Stress in Changing Times, The Haworth Press, Inc. USA Westen, D, (2002), Psychology, Brain, Behaviour, & Culture, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. England

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